However, this research is still maturing, and many questions remain about whether and how these technologies might inform clinicians’ care of people with stimulant use disorders. Over the past several decades, data from basic research have contributed to an increased understanding of neuronal mechanisms involved in the effects of amphetamine, including methamphetamine. A comprehensive review of amphetamine neuropharmacology is beyond the scope of the current article, and excellent reviews already exist (eg, Sulzer et al, 2005; Fleckenstein et al, 2007). Nonetheless, a brief overview will provide insight into the neurotransmitters involved in the actions of amphetamine. As can be seen in Figure 1, amphetamine-related drugs bear a striking resemblance to the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE). The structural similarities between amphetamine and catecholamine neurotransmitters provide clues about the drugs’ mechanisms of action.

What are the long-term effects of methamphetamine misuse?

If they are not taking the drug, they feel dreadful, so they continue with the abuse in order to keep going. The more they abuse the substance, the higher their tolerance for it becomes, which means having to keep on taking more in order to get the same effects. As long as the drug is used as prescribed, it can be very effective at treating these conditions. Some people use amphetamine to suppress their appetite, so they can go for a long time without eating. The withdrawal symptoms are serious enough that amphetamine addicts should not try to stop using on their own.

• This impairment may persist for months or even years after one stops taking MA (Yang et al., 2018).
• Truck drivers, students and athletes were especially likely to abuse amphetamines.
• Even a single cocaine exposure was sufficient to reduce dendritic spine density in neurons 77.

Work Addiction and Stimulant Use: Latent Profile Analysis in a Representative Population Study

But along with these beneficial effects, you could also experience unwanted side effects. Experts are still studying the potential long-term effects of Adderall, especially when it’s taken at high doses. Long-term use of Adderall at high doses can cause significant side effects, including changes in how your brain Amphetamine Addiction produces neurotransmitters. Some people taking Adderall at a dose prescribed by a doctor may not experience noticeable side effects.

• Symptoms of amphetamine toxicity span a spectrum, encompassing tachycardia, hypertension, impulsivity, aggression, serotonin syndrome, psychosis, and seizures, underscoring the complexity of its clinical manifestations.
• However, some authors have concluded that the abuse potential of methylphenidate is equivalent to that of amphetamine, on the basis of findings in animal models and human research 88.
• In light of these considerations, it is somewhat disconcerting that the results from the study were construed as findings of pathology rather than preliminary evidence of group differences that appear to have limited or doubtful functional significance.
• Such noninvasive techniques can depict higher or lower activity levels of different brain areas by measuring metabolic activity (e.g., glucose use; Fakhoury, 2014).

Chapter 2—How Stimulants Affect the Brain and Behavior

• Today, only dextroamphetamine, lisdexamfetamine, methylphenidate and mixed salts amphetamine are made for medical use.
• Few clinical studies of ADHD, however, have documented differences among d-, l- and racemic amphetamine.
• A network of these brain regions integrates emotional and cognitive aspects of memory and triggers craving when it reacts to cues and memories.
• The current illicit amphetamine epidemic is increasing the incidence of this problem.
• Australian methamphetamine users had 11 times the prevalence of psychosis found in the general population, and methamphetamine dependence further tripled the risk for psychosis, even after adjusting for prior history of psychotic disorders 193.

By boosting norepinephrine levels and supporting neurotransmitter balance, Performance Lab Mind improves mental clarity and helps users stay focused under pressure, offering an effective alternative for those looking to enhance cognitive function without the use of stimulants. The majority of nonprescription stimulant users reported obtaining the drugs from a peer with a prescription – a process termed diversion. The diversion of stimulants is very common and can begin in childhood, adolescence, or young adulthood. A study conducted by Wilens et al. (2008) reported that lifetime rates of diversion ranged from 16% to 29% of students with stimulant prescriptions asked to give, sell, or trade their medications (Wilens et al. 2008). One survey reported that 23.3% of middle and high school students taking prescribed stimulants had been solicited to divert their medication to others at a rate that increased from middle school to high school (McCabe et al. 2004). A review of 161 elementary and high school students prescribed the stimulant MPH revealed that they had been asked to give or sell their medication to others (Musser et al. 1998).

What are the long-term effects of using it?

In the 1990s, longer acting forms of amphetamine were developed using capsules of mixed d- and l- salts in both immediate release pellets and enteric-coated, delayed-release beads. The different salts and beads are metabolized at different rates, resulting in a less dramatic onset and termination of therapeutic action. Amphetamine is most often administered twice daily in immediate-release formulations (Dexedrine, DextroStat, or Adderall IR tablets), or once a day in sustained-release formulations (Dexedrine or Adderal XR capsules, Vyvanse tablets).

• It works by enhancing brain energy, increasing oxygen delivery, and promoting neurogenesis, all of which support clear thinking and long-term brain health.
• Alpha Brain has become a favorite for people looking to stay productive without relying on stimulants, as it improves cognitive processes and helps clear brain fog, making it a suitable and effective alternative to traditional ADHD medications.
• The prescription stimulants methylphenidate and d-amphetamine increase dopamine signaling—methylphenidate by blocking dopamine transporters and d-amphetamine by enhancing dopamine release from nerve terminals (Lakhan & Kirchgessner, 2012).

Adderall can not only cause changes in your brain chemistry and function, it may also lead to heart damage, digestive problems, and other unwanted side effects. According to research, Adderall helps decrease impulsivity in people living with ADHD. The steep increase in the diagnosis of ADHD during the 1990’s in the United States led to a parallel increase in production and societal exposure to legally distributed amphetamine. This change contributed to the surge in illicit use of pharmaceutical amphetamine, and the illegal manufacture and use of methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine that continued to accelerate through the 1990s.